BARSTOW COMMUNITY COLLEGE

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
(PSYC 1)
ONLINE COURSE

LESSON 1

CHAPTERS 1, Appendix A, & Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE:

Welcome to Psyc 1, Introduction to Psychology!  I am looking forward to having you in class and getting to know you through the assignments and class discussions. I hope to make the class interesting, fun, and educational. I also hope to provide you with practical information that you can really use, and relate the theoretical information to daily life.

The class is a short-term, 9-week class, so we will move quickly. For those of you who are anxious to "jump right in," you will get your wish! Rather than start slow and build up, I like to start "big," and wind down, so you will have a bit less to read/work on as the semester goes on, especially during those final weeks when you may have final exams to take or papers to complete in other courses. First, before we begin, there are some things you will want to become familiar with to "navigate" this class. There will be a quiz on these things next week!

1. Please read the syllabus and online course information, etc., that are on the class' homepage. These provide important information about the class that you will be expected to know (you may even want to consider printing the syllabus' "course schedule" and using in as a checklist to be sure that you get everything done each week - there is a "printable version" provided for your convenience).    Each week, you will be graded on two things: Discussions and quizzes.

Quizzes - The quizzes are open book and open notes, and I encourage you to use these! To take a quiz, click on the link at the bottom of the lesson pages.  Quiz 1 goes with Lesson 1, and so forth.

-Discussions: To facilitate interaction and learning between students, the Discussion Board is used as a student forum to discuss questions posed by the instructor. You have ONE discussion question to answer each week (except for the last week when you have two). To post to the discussion board, click "discuss" at the bottom of any page. BE SURE that you use the "Psyc 1 - Dr. Roberts" class link, or you may be posting under the wrong class! Be sure that you go back after each week is over and read the responses to your post (answer) and my final comments. I will not always respond individually unless I see a clear misunderstanding or need to intervene in a discussion . . . more often I will summarize the week's main points in a "wrap up" posting.  The idea is that this forum is to be a place where you can share your ideas and gain perspective from one another's thoughts and experiences.

* I encourage you to think in these "discussions," and so I don't mind disagreement at all - IF it is done respectfully. It is even better to back up your answer, agreement, OR disagreement with research from the book, lecture, or another source. The exchange of ideas and getting out of our "comfort zone" is how true learning takes place.  I like to see students looking at various perspectives on any issue even if the perspectives don't line up with their own viewpoint.  The idea is to try to see things how someone else might see them.  Just remember that any rude or derogatory comments will be removed immediately and the person's grade will be significantly reduced. Discussions should not get personal, nor should disagreement be taken personally. Respectful comments, backed up by references (which, as the weeks go on, will be required for full credit), whether in agreement or disagreement, is the key.

* Lastly, about the discussion board: there are 3 things that you are required to do if you want to be eligible for full credit each week: 1) you must answer the discussion question. To do this, you use the "Start a New Thread" button. Type in your answer, click preview (make sure it is ok), then click "Post." Don’t forget to check back to see if it is there! 2) you must respond to at least one other student's answers (you will use the "Add a message" box at the bottom of the student's post). I do not consider one sentence responses a response - responses must be substantive (2-3 thoughtful sentences are usually adequate). Please try to respond to students who have fewer or no responses. You should respond to each student in his/her posting area, don’t include them in your answer. This is the "minimum" requirement. You can always respond to more than one student. 3) Beginning the second week, I also look to see that your opinions are backed up by information from the book, lecture, or another source (ie - resources).  (Correct spelling, grammar, etc. is also critical)  For more information about the discussion board, you should read "Discussions" in the "Syllabus" area.

* When submitting assignments and posting to the discussion board, DO NOT use the back button. You may find that your posting is not there. Always check, after posting, to see that what you typed is there. You may need to click the "refresh/reload" button, but you need to be sure that your assignment was "saved" to the board or you cannot receive credit. The biggest problem students have had is using the "back" button or not clicking the "post" button twice (the first page is just a preview - keep clicking the "post" button each time until it is not there anymore - still, go back and check), and what they thought was posted was not.

* Be sure to read the "Instructor Posting Area" at least once a week. This is where I will answer common questions, give announcements, and other information (like your grades!). You are responsible to know information that is contained there -- not for testing purposes, but if I clarify something there, I won't accept "oh, I didn't read that" as an excuse.  

2. You can expect to hear from me on a regular basis via emails, posted grades, comments on the discussion board and/or posts in the instructor post area. If you send me a question (Please send me as many questions as you need for clarification. You are NOT "bugging" me - this is my job to help you understand the information in this course.) I will respond to you within 24-48 hours. Please put "question," "urgent," "need help," or something similar in the subject line so that I will know it is a question and respond quickly (occasionally, a student will respond to an assignment using the "reply" button and not change the subject heading so it is filtered into a folder for assignments which I do not read until I grade them, or some may ask the question in the assignment, and it takes me longer to answer, since I normally read assignments after the week is over.  Questions marked as above are routed to me immediately and I answer as soon as I'm able to). Also, don't forget to put your name and course number (Psyc 1) on EVERY email.

3. Please keep in touch with me through email on a regular basis. Since we do not meet in a classroom, regular contact is important, especially if you are not understanding something, or have something happen that keeps you from completing your work. You MUST check your email at least weekly and the instructor post area as well - you are responsible for the information posted in the Instructor Post Area (which is also where you will find your grades and the majority of feedback on your assignments and discussions). NOTE: Please add my personal address - kroberts123@gmail.com - to your "safe senders" list.  You will still use the kroberts@bcconline.com email address to contact me, but I sometimes respond from my personal address, and you don't want your computer thinking that it's SPAM or junk.  If you have sent me a question and not received an answer after 24 hours, PLEASE email me again!  Provide an alternate email address to respond to, if possible, and I will attempt to contact you through another email address.  I ALWAYS respond to questions, so if you haven't received a response either I never got the question or your SPAM (Junk Mail) filter caught it.  Please keep trying to reach me! (See the syllabus for what to do if you still don't receive an answer from me after your second try.)

4. On the course homepage is instructions for your "username" and "password." These are important because after the first week of class, you will not have access to any lectures without these. You also will not have access to the discussion board.  Email me right away if you have any questions or problems with these.

5.  Please do not submit assignments early - the course is NOT "self-paced."  Assignments and discussions need to be completed during the week they are assigned.  I will, however, accept assignments the weekend before the week begins, at the earliest, (in other words, each week begins on a Monday, and I will accept assignments and discussions from Week 2, for example, on the weekend before Week 2 begins, for those who are "so-inclined").  If you know you will be gone and need to post earlier, please email me for permission.  Also, you are more than welcome to work ahead and save the work on your computer, then post as we reach each assignment or discussion.  Note that I usually grade work on Thursday after the week ends, so work submitted before any Thursday of the week will often be graded an entire week sooner. (did that make sense? haha - you'll see what I mean if you submit your work before Thursday!)

To summarize: each week you should 1) read the chapter, 2) read the lesson, 4) take the quiz for each lesson, and 5) post the discussion question and (at least) 1 response to another student. Generally, you will be submitting 2 quizzes and posting one discussion question/response per week (remember that this is a short-term class). 

Well, I think that is enough for now! (haha) Don't be overwhelmed, especially if this is your first Internet course. You may want to print this information and save it -- it will all make sense in a week or two as we go through the class. Also, I will be glad to clarify anything -- step-by-step if you need . . . just email me, and after the first week, you'll be navigating the class like a pro! I just like to get all of the "housekeeping" things out of the way first!!

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY:

In this course, we touch on many aspects of psychology, and how it is used in everyday life.  Because psychology is such a broad field, we cannot do much in-depth study in this course (there just isn't time!).  However, as we touch on each subject, I will try to give you as broad a perspective as I can.   Chapters begin very "factually,"  packed with terms and biology and other information, and you may begin to wonder "WHAT does this have to do with psychology???"  The early chapters build a strong foundation for understanding the later chapters, and as we progress, you will see information build and expand upon the basis that you will be given in the first chapters.  (And if you STILL have the question "WHAT does this have to do with psychology?" - hang on . . . I'll explain right around Chapter 3.)

One note here that will be important for you to know:  I expect to provide a combination of theory and practicality in these lessons. You will see a pattern where I will teach a concept, then follow with an example. Forgive me if many examples are from my own, personal experience, but I feel the best way to illustrate a concept or theory is to provide a real-life example that you can relate to: that you can actually "see." Many questions people have about psychology can be answered by illustration of a "real life" event. I would also encourage you to find your own real-life examples of the theories and concepts being taught. You can always go back to the book, or another source to get the concepts that will be taught, but as you learn to relate these ideas to your own life and possibly even use them, you will find true learning taking place.

Additionally, you will find that in the lessons, I do not summarize the book.  I may summarize to lead into the lesson or a concept and/or to tie the two together, but by-and-large, these lessons will expand on the book's information, giving examples, clarifications and practical information.  I use the book as a foundation for your knowledge and as a "topic guide," but my lessons provide additional information that is often not found in the book.  Keep in mind, however, that both the book and lesson material is testable, and it would not be uncommon for you to find test questions based solely on your reading in the book, or solely on a lesson and not in the book.  It is imperative that you keep up on your reading both in the book and the lessons, or you will not be able to pass tests and quizzes, nor will you be able to adequately answer the discussion questions.

Textbook

Stop for a minute now, and take a look at your book.  You may have already thumbed through the text, but look again. In each chapter, there is additional information to help you understand the concepts being taught.   Chapters are set up in a "FAQ" (Frequently Asked Questions) style - such that each section begins with a question that seems to be commonly asked.  Additionally, in each section is a "Rehearse It" series of questions that help you to review the main points (answers to these questions are in the back of the book in Appendix C).  You are responsible for all of the information in the textbook in addition to the additional information I provide in the lessons.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?  

The field of psychology is a broad one. It encompasses behavior, feelings, thoughts, and even some biological aspects. Psychologists focus on specific problems, social issues, marketing (using psychology to sell you and your children products), research, understanding criminals, dealing with trauma, understanding purpose in life, accepting death and loss, and many, many other issues. The field of psychology extends into the medical profession, the biological and anatomical sciences, encompasses history and philosophy, sociology, anthropology, technology (computers and the Internet, for example), is used by law enforcement, major corporations, and employees of the government. If you can name a field of employment or study, psychology can be used in that field. In fact, there have even been recent studies and information on "pet" psychology, and an upsurge in the profession of "pet psychology." For example, did you know that some psychologists believe that pets can suffer from separation anxiety? Whether or not you accept certain research and findings will be up to you, once you have studied more about the issue.

IMPROVING YOUR STUDY SKILLS -  This section touches on just one area that psychology can apply to you as a student, right now.  This section will, hopefully, help you begin to use psychological thinking for the practical problem of developing effective study skills.

Students allocate study time in a variety of ways, based on their schedules, other commitments such as family and work, and how they spend study and leisure time.  Successful study depends not only on how much time you study, but how efficiently you use that time.  (In general, it is recommended that for every hour you spend IN class, you would spend TWO hours outside of class studying, reading, writing, etc., to meet the requirements and to learn the material.  Thus, in a short-term course such as this, "in class" is considered to be 6 hours per week (If you were taking a 9-week, in-class course, you would be in class for 6 hours per week.), which an online student would generally spend reading the lessons.  "Outside class" time would then equal 12 hours per week, which would include reading, writing assignments and discussions, and any research related to these, plus studying and, in classes with term papers, writing these as well.  Most students won't spend a total of 18 hours per week for a 9-week course, but this is what is recommended. 

Often, time management experts suggest keeping track, for a week, of your activities.  How long do you spend doing the activities you are required to do each week?  This gives you an idea of how you can better allocate study time, and also ways that you canNOT allocate time (for example, it's unrealistic to expect to get only 3 hours of sleep per night and spend the additional time studying, since most people's brains cannot absorb the information without sleep and study time is less effective than if the student spent half the time in the middle of the day).  Study time can be set aside in two ways:  1) large blocks are important for good studying, provided the student understands when he or she reaches the "saturation" point and will take regular, short breaks.  2) small "holes" in time, between other activities, are ideal for rehearsing and re-reading information, studying terms, and filling out brief assignments or quizzes.  These can all be utilized effectively if you know where your time is being spent.  For example, if you had to wait for your spouse or a child for 5-10 minutes in the car - if you have your book with you, you can read a short section or two, or re-read something you read earlier to help remember the information.  Some study experts, for example, recommend taking 5-10 minutes after a class is finished to review your notes or re-read notes from another day.

Study environments are also an important consideration for students.  Avoiding distractions is critical to effective study - but knowing what those distractions are is even more critical!  (We will discuss types of distractions in a later lesson.)  Some find that it is best to study in one specific place, as the brain learns to concentrate and focus when you are there (the library is quite conducive to high concentration and focus). On the other hand, if your "specific place" is also a place where you daydream or nap, your brain might already be conditioned to do this, and studying will be less effective in that space. Others have limited time and/or space to study, and must maximize what they have.  In those cases, minimizing distractions will be key, even if that means playing soft music, wearing headphones, or moving your study space.

Take a minute to complete this short self-assessment, that may help you identify strengths and areas for improvement (it's probably easiest to print it out and place an X in the box that most applies to your abilities):

TAKING STOCK OF YOUR LEARNING STRATEGIES:

Many of the techniques listed above come from research on behavior and mental processes - the definition of psychology.  Learning to study effectively is one benefit provided to us through psychological research.  There are many other areas, as discussed above, many areas that psychology impacts and many areas that impact psychology. Undoubtedly, the subject of psychology can (and will) be a topic for lively discussions.  I encourage you to keep an open mind while exploring the many theories. You will also find that some of these theories conflict. How can this be? Which is right? Well, many times each of them is right - in certain circumstances. We will not only examine how reliable and valid past and current research is, but look closely at the circumstances surrounding the studies to see in which situations the research would apply. (I will discuss how this is done in detail in another lesson.)

I hope you will enjoy this class. I am looking forward to getting to know each of you, and to hearing your opinions. Please be sure that you read the chapters before reading the lessons and completing assignments or discussion questions. Also, I encourage you to ask questions whenever you don’t understand something (just send me an email!). This is especially important in an online class, since we won’t have the usual classroom contact, and I can’t "see" your faces as I "lecture" to see if there are questions!

TAKE QUIZ #1 - CLICK HERE 

(At this point, you should have already read Chapter 1 and Appendix A.  If you haven't, go back and do so now.)

I.  How is psychology defined?

First of all, what is Psychology? Without looking in your book, think for a minute about how you would define psychology. What does the word psychology mean? Well, when the term psychology actually came into being (about the time of Aristotle, the Greek philosopher), it was a combination of words: psych + ology.  Psych is a root from the Greek word "Psyche" meaning soul (which is meant to encompass the mind, body, and spirit).  -ology means "the study of."  Today, the term psych refers to the mind and its control over other behaviors based on perceptions.  Hence, today's definition, the study of the mind.  And the field of psychology's preferred definition, as described in the book: "The scientific study of behavior and mental processes in context."  We will review this definition towards the end of class, and see if it makes any more sense (in a practical way) than it does now.

II. Goals of psychology

There are four goals of psychology - what the field of psychology tries to accomplish:

A. Describe - to describe what happens and why in a more systematic and accurate way.  A description is a factual "play-by-play" of something that happens.  There are no interpretations attached, no guesses of "why" - just a factual account of what one observes.  (Ex:  Little Johnny ran around the playground, jumped over the tricycle, ran to the sandbox and threw sand on Little Suzie.  There are no explanations for "why" Johnny does these things - just what happened.)

B. Predict - predictions of future behavior based on past behaviors.  As we watch certain behaviors happen over and over again, we can be fairly sure that in a similar setting, the behavior will continue to happen.  (Ex: Little Johnny performs the same behavior, as described above, every single time he goes outside.  We have watched him for 34 days now, and observed the same thing.  What are the chances that he will perform the same behavior tomorrow?  Very, very high.  Can we be SURE???  Certainly not, but we can be reasonably sure, enough to make a prediction that it would happen again.)

C. Understand - if it can be predicted, it can be understood (or we are well on our way to understanding). Understandings are tentative guesses about behavior: theories, if you will (I will explain how theories and Major Theories play into psychology when we talk about research methods below).

theory - a tentative explanation of facts and relationships in sciences

After watching Little Johnny's behavior on the playground, we can begin to make some tentative guesses (called hypotheses) about WHY he is behaving the way he is.  Some investigation into other aspects of his life, and we may learn that Little Suzie lives next door to him, and constantly takes his tricycle, and her parents let her.  Then when they get on the playground, Little Johnny retaliates by throwing sand at her.  Of course, there could be other explanations, but understanding why the behavior happens - what goes along with it - is what research psychologist study.

D. Influence - if it can be described, predicted, and understood, then it can be influenced for change in ways that benefit the person, others, or society.  Do we really need to change Little Johnny's running and jumping behavior?  Nope.  They are normal for a small child.  We understand (that he was cooped up in a classroom and wants to run), but there is no need to change it.  However, the behavior that harms another child MUST be changed.  Society's mores (pronounced "more-ays" - refers to unwritten rules of society that we just "know" or are expected to know.) say that we should not harm other people.  Little Johnny is harming Little Suzie by throwing sand at her, and we need to "influence" his behavior so that it stops.  (With the "tricycle" knowledge, it would be wise to address THAT situation as well, which would probably be a huge influence in stopping the sand-throwing.)  Time-outs and removing privileges are some ways that we can use to modify this behavior (of course there are others, but we won't discuss ALL the options at this point!).   

III. History of psychology

Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, outlined the basis for psychology when he wrote about the psyche - mind. He believed that in order to understand anything, one had to observe it - by looking at it, listening to it, and touching it. This formed the basis for later scientific observations.  Hypocrites used psychology in his medical practice: he would prescribe rest, freedom from worries, and vacations to relieve symptoms that had no seeming biological basis.  2200 years later, the separate field of psychology was established.  Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory of Psychology in Germany, 1879, allowing for formal study of psychology.  There is no one "founder" of psychology: many people "founded" psychology by laying the foundations for the diverse field we know today as psychology.

Some other pioneers of psychology are as follows:  

 J. Henry Alston is best known for his studies of the sensations of heat and cold.  He was also the first African American psychologist to be published in a journal of the APA.

Margaret Washburn was the first woman to be awarded the Ph.D. degree in psychology.  Prior to that time, women could study and complete degree requirements, and even work in the field as researchers, but were not awarded the degree.

William James focused on what function our sense of consciousness serves, rather than how it is structured (whole or parts). For example, thinking, feeling, remembering, learning, and other process of human consciousness exist only because they help us survive. He was especially interested in conscious awareness, voluntary action (free will), habits, and emotions. His field of study was called Functionalism - the school of psychology that emphasized the useful functions of consciousness.  Functionalism has evolved into what we call today cognition - mental processes of perceiving, believing, thinking, remembering, knowing, deciding, and so on.

Hermann Ebbinghaus studied memory, setting the basis for measuring memory loss over intervals of time. His work is still used to study memory and retention (for example, how much of this lesson will you retain after you have read it???) and educators (and others) use his findings to help people increase what they retain.

Mamie & Kenneth Clark studied African American children's self-concepts and identities.  This research provided scientific basis for Brown vs. Board of education which ended segregation. Later, Kenneth Clark became the first African American president of the American Psychological Association.

George Sanchez's research discouraged use of culturally biased tests for minority schoolchildren.  His research showed that some tests were biased, thus other, more accurate tests have come into being.

Alfred Binet developed a way to measure intelligence. His efforts, although revised, formed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale which is widely used today. Intelligence measurements branched out and now include personality, job aptitude, and so on.

Albert Bandura is known for his Social Learning theory: the viewpoint that the most important aspects of our behavior are learned from other persons in society - family, friends, and culture.

IV.  Basic vs. Applied psychology

There are two "types" of psychology: Basic and Applied psychology.  Basic psychology is the experimental part of psychology which conducts research and experiments and provides the scientific basis for our understandings. Basic psychology also includes the teaching of psychology. Approximately 25% of psychologists work in this area of psychology. 

Applied areas of modern psychology are used to apply psychology and its experimental findings to "real-life." These psychologists use the experimental foundation and apply it to practical situations.  They are the ones who relate to the general public on a daily basis.  75% of psychologists work in this area. Applied psychologist - one who uses knowledge of psychology to solve and prevent human problems.

V. Psychology vs. Psychiatry

Two jokes (I LOVE psych. jokes:)

1.  How many psychologists does it take to change a light bulb?

A.  Just one, but that light bulb has REALLY got to want to change!

2.  How many psychiatrists does it take to change a light bulb?

A.  Psychiatrists don't change light bulbs, but if you ask, they will give you a prescription that will help you THINK the light bulb has been changed.

Ok, so what does that have to do with psychology?  Well, other than the fact that they are psych jokes, it illustrates that there just MAY be a difference between psychologists and psychiatrists.  But what is that difference?  It used to be very precise:  Psychiatrists could prescribe medicine and psychologists could not.  Now, however, psychologists can also prescribe certain medications relating to their field, and must undergo a year's residency to do so (your book states that New Mexico passed a law in 2002 to allow this, but since the textbook has been written, there are over 20 states that have also passed laws to allow psychologists to prescribe medications, CA being one if them).  Now, the difference is that psychiatrists are actually licensed medical doctors who specialize in psychology (as opposed to specializing in family practice, internal medicine, etc.), whereas psychologists are Ph.D.s whose degrees are in psychology.  Generally, also, one must be licensed in his or her state to be called a psychologist (for example, in CA, a person must be licensed to be called a psychologist).

Ok - one more psych joke . . . it has nothing to do with anything:  What does a philosopher who suffers with dyslexia do when he has insomnia?  He stays up all night wondering if there is a doG.  Ok, moving right along . . . . (and when we discuss dyslexia, you may be surprised to find out that this joke isn't an accurate portrayal of the disorder . . . it's a "stereotype" or myth . . . and we will talk later about several disorders where society widely believes that it has certain characteristics when it really does not.) 

Scientific methods - methods of gathering information based on systematic observation.

Psychology is a science, and like other sciences, so research must be conducted and data must be gathered in a scientific way, to ensure that results are as accurate as possible.

As your book points out, there are several types of research, some are purely for information gathering (such as surveys and observations) and some will give a close approximation of a cause/effect relationship (called correlation, which we will discuss in a few minutes).

Surveys and observation (naturalistic - in the person’s natural environment; and laboratory) are for gathering information. We are able to get information on trends, tendencies, and people’s preferences and habits from surveys and observation. This is how data is gathered. Some strengths of surveys are that they can reach a large population in a very short time, and they are comparatively inexpensive. Some limitations are that they have a very low response rate (50% is good!) and sometimes people are not always honest. It also limits the researcher because he or she cannot see the face or the reaction of the person being surveyed.

Observation is an excellent way to gather data - it lets the researcher observe the person in his or her natural environment (naturalistic observation) and yields accurate results - for one person. In the laboratory, people can be observed and the researcher can eliminate many of the "outside influences" that can sometimes produce inaccurate results. Some of the drawbacks to observation is that people can sometimes act differently if they know they are being observed. Also, this is very time-consuming and expensive. After all, one could send out millions and millions of surveys (funding permitting) in one’s lifetime, but how many individuals could one actually observe in one’s lifetime?

Thus, research is designed with the goal of the study in mind, and the researcher’s limitations as well. If the goal of the research is something that needs a huge amount of data in a short period of time, one may choose to use the survey method in spite of the drawbacks (indeed, some of the drawbacks may not even be a problem in certain research); and if one needs more specific, spontaneous, natural responses, then the researcher may decide to opt for the observational method.

We have just discussed research that gathers data. These types of research have no other purpose. If one wants to determine a cause/effect relationship, then the data needs to be compared in an experiment. This is called experimental research. Experimental research actually tries to show that one "behavior" or event "causes" another. However, one must be very cautious in interpreting this information, because human behavior is very different, and, unlike in science, nothing can be "proven" 100% in psychology. Researchers find trends, and correlations (events and behaviors that seem to "go together") but never is a hypothesis "proven." In mathematics, there is one (sometimes two or more, but rarely) totally correct answer. For example, 1+1 always equals 2. Except when it equals 3, right? No, not in math. 1+1 = 2 always, and we can count on that. In psychology, because we are dealing with humans who think and feel and behave in different and unpredictable ways, sometimes we have results that are not typical - results that are exceptions. In psychology, figuratively speaking, 1+1 = 2 MOST of the time, but there are the few, rare exceptions when it equals 27 or 1,362. In other words, in some cases we see exceptions to the rule, and research is not true for EVERY situation. Keep in mind that exceptions are exactly that: exceptions. They don’t make the "rule" not true or inaccurate. When research has been done over and over, and has yielded the same results each time, one can be fairly sure that the results are reliable.

Well, if research is never 100% "proven," then what does it do? If we can’t prove something, then what good is the research anyway? Let me give you an example of correlation:

Notice that in inner-city New York, during August, violence rises. Also, during that same time, ice cream sales increase. So, looking at that data, we could reasonably assume that eating more ice cream causes violence. Right???    :-)   Oh, you don’t agree?    :-O       Ok, well, then violence obviously causes people to buy more ice cream. Right? Well, if you think logically about this, you would figure out very quickly that there is another factor involved - what researchers call an intervening variable - a factor that can affect BOTH things. Sometimes the intervening variable is not as obvious as in this example. What is our intervening variable here? Heat, of course. The heat causes ice cream sales to increase, AND the heat causes violence to increase, especially in crowded areas. But these two things (ice cream sales and violence) correlate - they go together. Correlation means - not that one thing causes another, but that they go together on a consistent basis. Notice, then, that even if we see a strong correlation between two things, we still cannot say for sure that one thing causes another. Even in the case of the correlation between heat and violence, we STILL cannot say that one causes another. They are very closely correlated, but what if there was a mosquito that hatched right at the first of August and died out by the end of August, and everyone it stung got more violent? Well, obviously, researchers would need to look into all the other factors, but we need to be aware that there could be something else that "causes" certain behavior. This is why researchers will use correlational studies and results when "causational" studies are not available.

Showing a cause and effect relationship is very, very difficult, but not impossible. One way to show that heat causes violence would be to squeeze the entire population of New York in a laboratory, getting rid of the mosquitoes and the ice cream, and turn up the heat!! If they get more violent than usual, than we can be very sure that heat causes violence. Although we still could not be 100% positive, we could rely on the results to try to alleviate some of the violence during the hot, summer months. However, with this "laboratory experiment" we have one other factor to consider. The ethics of "causing" people to be violent. No experiment like this would be allowed in today’s society - it is unethical. Much of our medical research, which needs to be very, very, precise and accurate, is done in a laboratory to eliminate as many intervening variables as possible. This is also why animals are used in research, to eliminate, as much as possible, the "human" factor that causes differences in behavior.

Ethics in Research

In the late 16th century, a king decided to conduct an experiment about language. He took 50 children from orphanages and placed them in a "laboratory" - a special orphanage that he had set up for these children. As a king and a scientist, he wanted to see which language these babies would learn if they were not taught a language. The infants, living in a "better" environment that they had been in when they lived in the orphanage (where they would not have had enough food or clothing, very little human interaction, and where children normally die within the first year of being placed in an orphanage from disease or starvation), were given food, clothing, and shelter. They were kept clean, dry, and fed. All of their biological needs were met. However, the caregivers in this situation were to refrain from interacting in any way with the infants. They did not talk to, cuddle, or otherwise interact with the infants to ensure that the infants wound not inadvertently learn the caretakers’ language. What language do you suppose these infants learned? Well, before they had a chance to learn or develop ANY language, they had all died.

Through this experiment we learned that children need more than food, clothing and shelter. They need to be loved and nurtured, which was not something that was known or considered before this time. Keep in mind that in those days, and for several centuries after, children were considered property and commodities, not "people."

Could we duplicate this study today? Not only would we not want to, but it would be illegal and unethical. Ethics, not laws, determine much of what is done, and not done, in research today. The laws govern extreme cases, but ethics cover the wide range of "gray areas" that are not illegal, but just aren’t "right."

Some ethical factors that are considered when research studies are proposed (there are committees who govern these studies in governmental and educational institutions and the American Psychological Association has developed a code of ethics for its members which also outlines ethical responsibilities) are as follows:

1. Participation must be voluntary and not coerced. Participants must sign a consent form, which advises them of their rights, including the right not to participate, the right to withdraw at any time, and the right to be informed about the results of the study.

2. Participation must not harm the participant: physically, psychologically, or emotionally. This is sometimes hard to determine, but if participants are completely informed of everything the research entails, then the participant can decide if it may be harmful. Additionally, the researcher must always be watching for undue distress, emotional discomfort, or physical pain in his or her participants. (When this falls into a gray area, #4 is also a consideration. . .)

3. Researchers should avoid deception. There are some exceptions to this rule - sometimes informing the participants of the entire scope of the research would bias their behavior. For example, if a researcher was testing a diet drug, and one-half of the group got the actual diet drug, and the other half got a placebo (fake pill - usually sugar - with no drug) the participants would act differently. The "diet drug" group may exercise more and be more aware of what they eat, because they are aware that they are taking the pill. The "fake drug" group, or placebo group, may eat even worse than before, knowing that nothing was going to help. Thus when the groups are divided, many times they are not told which group is taking the actual drug and which group is taking the placebo, thus minimizing the bias. This is called minimal deception. If deception is used, then the researcher must 1) debrief the participants - tell them what actually was studied, and 2) offer the same "treatment" to those who used a placebo or received no treatment, when applicable.

4. Benefits of the study must outweigh any potential risks.

5. Confidentiality of the participants must be maintained. This is a law, in addition to a point of ethics. A researcher must maintain confidentiality forever, unless otherwise given permission by the participant(s).

Psychology vs. Pseudoscience

What about other "predictors of behavior" such as astrology and graphology?  Astrology "uses the position of the stars and planets at the time of a person's birth to describe, explain, and predict the person's behavior" (Halonen & Santrock, 1999, p. 27).   Graphology is defined as "the use of handwriting analysis to describe, explain, and predict behavior" (Halonen & Santrock, p. 28).  Both of these are considered pseudopsycholgies: "a nonscientific system that resembles psychology but lacks scientific support" (p. 28).  Research shows that predictions often appear to be true because of the general nature of the prediction, whereas when more specific predictions were researched, they almost never held up.  Pseudopshychologies tend to produce either descriptions, explanations and predictions that either cannot be directly tested or, when tested, turn out to be false, according to Halonen & Santrock (1999).   Consider this excerpt on pg. 28 of Halonen & Santrock's text:

"At least 3,000 firms in the United States use graphology when hiring individuals.  In other countries, such as Israel and Japan, the use of grapholiogical analysis is even more widespread.  If the research investigation of graphological claims is so negative, why is graphology so widely used and accepted?  Graphological analysis has a mysterious, powerful ring to it.  People are easily impressed by so-called experts and assume they know what they are talking about.  Positive, unscientific reports of graphologists' abilities frequently appear in magazines and business commentaries.  People are fascinated by graphology and want to believe that their handwriting, because it is highly individual, reveals something about themselves.  Also, graphologists' predictions, like those of palmists and astrologers, are usually very general and difficult to disprove."

 Exercising critical thinking skills and doing a bit of research can help determine scientifically-grounded behavioral predictors and rule out those that have either not been scientifically tested or have been tested and shown to be false.

Reference:

Halonen, J. S. & Santrock, J. W. (1999).  Psychology: Contexts and applications (3rd ed).  McGraw/Hill: Boston.

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